eng revision

bio mcqs for exams

Ch -8 Challenges to Democracy

1.     Define the following terms:-

·  Challenge – A challenge is difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for progress. Once we overcome a challenge we go up to higher level than before. It is a problem which can be solved.

·  Political Reform or Democracy Reform – Generally all the suggestions or proposals about overcoming various challenges are called ‘Democracy Reform’ or ‘Political Reform’

2.     Describe three main categories of challenges faced by modern Democracies?

·  Foundation Challenge: It is faced by about one fourth of the non-democratic countries of the world. They have the challenge of making the transition from dictatorship to democracy. This involves (a) bringing down the existing non-democratic regime (b) preventing military from controlling government (c) Establishing a sovereign and functional state.

·  Challenge of Expansion: It is faced by most established democracies of the world. eg. India and USA. It involves the applying of the basic principles of democratic government across all regions, social groups and various institutions in order to ensure (a) greater power to local bodies (b) extending federal principles to all federal units (c) Inclusion of women and minority groups in democratic practise.

·  Challenge of Deepening Democracy: It is faced by every democracy in one form or the other. It involves strengthening of institutions and practices of democracies that promote participation and control of people. It requires an attempt to bring down the control and influence of rich powerful people in making decisions to their advantage only in government, parliament and panchayats.

3.     What is the role of citizens in a democracy?

·  Citizens need to show more care and alertness in electing the right candidates and in rejecting corrupt and bad politicians.

·  Citizens should not be misled by wrong practices, which tend to divide them. They must overcome the barriers of caste and religion and develop a rational conduct. Be socially responsible.

·  Citizens need to be politically responsible, vigilant and aware of laws and their rights and must use them for their benefit. E.g. Right to Information Act helps to check work of government officials. They must channelize the democratic systems by voicing their opinions and grievances in order to make democracy effective. Education is the soul of democracy. Only educated citizens can lead to good democracy.

4.     What are the features of a good democracy?

·  Rule of the People: People have the final decision making power as they elect their representatives.

·  Free and Fair Elections: In which those currently in power also have a fair chance of losing elections.

·  Universal Adult Franchise: Each Adult citizen must have one vote and each vote must have one value. This ensures political equality.

·  Role of Law: Democratic Government rules within limits set by constitutional law and citizens rights to check it. Rule of majority however does not mean that the view of the minority can be ignored.

·  Accountability of Government: Democratic Government is responsible to the citizens. Its Policy can be questioned. It has to be responsive to their needs and expectations.

·  Enhances the dignity of Citizens: Democracy is based on two main principles i.e, equality and freedom to all citizens. It must check any form of discrimination. It is necessary to ensure economic and social justice.

·  Democracy accommodates social diversities: Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts between social groups. It allows for power sharing.

Pol. Science

Ch-7 Outcomes of Democracy

Q1. How does democracy produce an accountable, responsible or legitimate government?

A1. A. Since citizens enjoy the legitimate political right to choose their representative through regular elections, they also enjoy the right to exercise control over them.

B. Citizens have a right to participate in decision-making based on norms and procedures.

C. They can also examine the process of decision-making through deliberations and negotiations. This is called transparency. This makes a government responsible to the people.

D. Such a government promotes the formulation and expression of public opinion. It has to regard public opinion in order to find out expectations of the citizens.

E. People can have right to information, open public debates and discussions on legislations.

Q2. Explain why democracy is considered good in principle but not so good in practice?

A2. A. Democracy produces less effective government because some delay is bound to take place in the process of decision-making, which involves long deliberations negotiations and procedures.

B. Elections may not provide a fair chance to everyone.

C. Every decision may not be subjected to public debate.

D. Democratic government does not have a very good record when it comes to sharing information with citizens.

E. Democratic governments are not largely free of corruption.

F. They may not always be attentive or responsive to the needs and demands of majority of the population.

G. In actual practice democracies have not been very successful in reducing economic inequalities.

Q3. Give arguments or oppose the following assertions:

A.    Industrialized countries can afford democracy but the poor need dictatorship to become rich.

Ans A

1. It is incorrect to think that poor countries need dictatorship to become rich, because economic growth and materialism is not only requirement for the development and happiness of people.

2. People deserve democratic ideals liberty and freedom and a legitimate responsible and accountable government of their choice.

3. It is only in a democracy that people can make demands for reforms freely.

B.    Democracy can’t reduce inequality of incomes between different citizens.

Ans B

1. In actual practice, democracies don’t appear to be very successful in reducing economic inequality because most democratic governments are not seriously keen to address the question of poverty. Usually the rich only control political life and enjoy undue economic benefits.

2. However, a democratic government can reduce economic inequality through economic reforms such as providing equal opportunities to all, ensuring equal distribution of wealth, etc.

3. Besides, it is only in a democratic government that people are free to raise their voice against economic inequality and help to initiate reforms for the common good.

C.    Government in poor countries should spend less on poverty reduction, health, education and more on industries and infrastructure.

Ans C

1. Development of industries and infrastructure will lead to economic development.

2. Expenditure on education and health and steps for the removal of poverty will lead to development of human resource.

3. Therefore, the government must strike a balance and give importance to both aspects to ensure overall progress.

D.   In democracy all citizens have one vote, which means that there is absence of any domination and conflict.

Ans D

1. It is a fact that there is a political equality in as one person gets one vote but domination of weaker sections and conflicts do occur due to social divisions. E.g.- India

2. By evolving mechanisms to negotiate differences. E.g.-Policy of Accommodation in Belgium.

3. By promoting general view i.e. majority rule with due weight to minority view.

4. Majority rule does not mean rule of the majority community in terms of religion, race and linguistic groups etc.

5. It means that different people and groups have a fair chance to form the majority.

Q5. Democracy is a better form of government as compared to dictatorship or any other alternatives. Justify.

A5. A. In non- democratic governments or dictatorship, decision- making and implementation is quick and more efficient than in democratic governments because dictators do not have to bother about long debates and deliberations in assemblies. They need not worry about majorities and public opinion like a democracy.

B. Dictatorships face troubles, as fast decisions may not be acceptable by citizens. In democracy the government will take more time to follow procedures like debating and consulting different people and then arrive at sound decisions. So there is transparency.

C. In non-democratic governments the principle of individual freedom and dignity would not have legal and moral force but in democracies these are assured. So democracy stands superior.

D. Democracies allow for some practices and institutions, Eg.  Free and fair elections, open public debate son major policies and legislations citizen’s rights to information about government and its functioning, etc. It is responsible and accountable for its actions because it is a government by force. It does not allow freedom of expression, dissent, press, civil liberties, etc. It may suppress opposition violently.

E. Democracy is a rule by the people as people elects the government of their choice, while in dictatorship there is monopolization of power in the hands of a leader or a political party. Government is not elected.

F. Democracy is best suited to respect accommodate and resolve social differences while non-democratic governments may ignore and suppress internal social differences.

some of it is scannted and some typed.. sorry for the inconvenience .. pls cooperate

biology 

ENVIRONMENT: The physical and the biological world which forms immediate surroundings of an organism.

Environment consists of three constituents/components

(a)   Biotic components i.e. Living organisms (plants, animals and micro-organisms)

(b)   Abiotic components i.e. Non-living constituents (land, air and water)  

(c)    Meteorological components i.e. Climatic factors (rainfall, humidity, sunlight, temperature etc).

Environmental problems:  Due to growing population there is depletion of resources and increased level of environmental pollution.

Pollution: Any change in physical, chemical or biological characteristic of air, land and water is called pollution. The agents which bring about these changes are called pollutants.

Pollutants are divided into two categories:

I)           Biodegradable pollutants and

II)         Non- biodegradable pollutants

Biodegradable pollutants: Those pollutants which can be degraded or broken down into simple harmless form by the action of micro-organisms like bacteria and fungi E.g. Household garbage, urine, faecal matter, agricultural residue, cattle dung, wood, paper cloth, leather, wool, silk, bones, hair, nails etc.

Harmful effects of biodegradable wastes:

(1)       They act as pollutants only when  their quantity  is large and they accumulate,

(2)       Decomposition of Biodegradable wastes results in spread of foul smell in the environment.

(3)       Their accumulation results in spread of vectors such as mosquitoes and flies which are carriers of pathogens and transmit diseases.

(4)       Biodegradable wastes block drains and result in water logging which becomes the breeding ground for disease spreading mosquitoes.

(5)        Certain industrial wastes which are biodegradable, when dumped on the ground result in loss of fertility of the soil.

However, recycling of biodegradable wastes helps to return the nutrients back to the environment and thus helps in maintaining ecological balance.

Non biological pollutants: Those pollutants which cannot be broken down into simple harmless form by the action of micro-organisms. Eg. plastic, Glass, pesticides like D.D.T, heavy metals like arsenic and lead, aluminum foil, silver foil, iron nails, radioactive substances, industrial wastes, polythene, nylon etc.

Harmful effects of non-biodegradable wastes:

(1)       Non- biodegradable wastes such as fertilizers, pesticides, industrial wastes when dumped on the ground   reduce soil fertility and, therefore, reduce crop yield.

(2)       Non-biodegradable wastes cause bio-magnification

Act. 15., Act. 15.2 Act. 15.4

Bio- magnification: it is the progressive increase in the concentration of non-biodegradable chemicals in the bodies of living organisms from one trophic level to another along the food chain. Since humans occupy top level in the food chain the concentration of these harmful chemicals is the highest in their body. As a result of bio-magnification different amounts of non-biodegradable pesticides are present in our food grains, vegetables, milk and milk products, eggs. Accumulation of Hg in our body leads to disease Minamata and accumulation of fluorine leads to fluorosis and bending of legs.

Recycling of non-biodegradable wastes reduces pollution.

ECOSYSTEM AND ITS COMPONENTS: Dynamic self-sustaining system of interactions between the biotic and the abiotic factors. It is the structural and functional unit of biosphere. Biotic components can also be classified as autotrophs or producers and hetrotrophs or consumers. 

Autotrophs or Producers: Those organisms which produce food by photosynthesis i.e. Organisms which can make organic compounds like sugar and starch from inorganic substances using the radiant energy of the sun in the presence of chlorophyll. For example all green plants blue green algae and some bacteria.

Heterotrophs or consumers: Those organisms which cannot prepare their food from simple inorganic raw materials but depend upon the producers for food either directly or indirectly by feeding on other consumers. They can be further classified into herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, decomposers and parasites.

Herbivores: are the animals that eat vegetation or plants e.g. cows, horse grasshopper, deer, rabbit etc.

Carnivores: are those animals that eat meat or flesh of other animals, e.g. tigers, lions, wolves etc.

Omnivores: are those animals that eat both plants and animals e.g. humans crows, cockroaches,

Parasites: are those organisms that live on (ectoparasites) or inside (endoparasites) the body of other organisms, e.g. fleas, lice, mosquitoes, tapeworm, Liver fluke etc.

Decomposers: Those organisms that breakdown the complex organic substances into simple inorganic substances and thus obtain energy. E.g. many bacteria and fungi

Act. 15.3

Role of decomposers in the biosphere:

i)            They help in recycling of nutrients

ii)          They clean up the environment and make it free of dead bodies

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM:

(a)   Natural ecosystem: These operate in nature by themselves without any human interference. Eg Thar Desert, rivers, lakes, ocean etc.

(b)   Man-made or artificial ecosystems: These are created and maintained by humans. E.g. Aquarium, crop field, orchard, parks etc.

Ecosystems can also be classified as:

(a)  Aquatic ecosystems: In these ecosystems all the interacting organisms are present in water. E.g. marine and freshwater ecosystems such as oceans, seas, ponds, lakes.

( Marine ecosystem is one of the largest and most uniform ecosystem)

      (b)          Terrestrial ecosystems: In these ecosystems all the interacting organisms are present on land. E.g. desert, forest, grassland ecosystems.

FOOD CHAIN: It is the interaction among various organisms involving flow of energy in the form of food from one tropic level to the next in the biosphere. It is the unidirectional flow of energy in the biosphere. Thus, it is a series of organisms taking part at various biotic levels. It starts from the producer and ends in consumer. The ultimate source of energy is the sun.

Effect of human activities on the environment;

 Changes in the environment affects us and our activities change the environment around us. There exists a great inter relationship between man and environment where both influence each other. When the environment is polluted beyond the capacity of cleaning agents of nature, ecological balance is lost and the environment becomes polluted.

OZONE LAYER: Ozone (O₃) is an isotope of oxygen, i.e. it is formed by three atoms of oxygen. it exists in the higher levels of atmosphere( the stratosphere). The higher energy U.V radiations from the sun split oxygen molecule into atomic oxygen which then combine with molecular oxygen to form ozone.  

  U. V

O2                            O     +        O

O       +        O2                        O3       

 Importance of ozone;

Ozone at higher levels shields the surface of earth from U.V radiations of the sun and prevent them from passing through it. It absorbs most of these harmful radiations.

Harmful effects of U.V radiations:

(1)       Exposure to high levels of U.V radiations weaken the human immune system and cause skin cancer, cataract of the eye, genetic defects.

(2)       U.V radiations affect plant growth and productivity.

(3)       Phytoplanktons and other microscopic marine plants are harmed by U.V radiations and their numbers decline resulting in disruption of the entire marine ecosystem.

(4)        It may cause global rainfall, leading to ecological disturbances and reduction in global food supplies.

(5)       Exposure to U.V radiations accelerates the deterioration of plastic,wood ,paper, cotton and wool.

 Depletion of ozone layer:

(1)       Synthetic chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) which are used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers. When they are released into the air they accumulate in the upper atmosphere and react with ozone and result in its reduction and creation of ozone holes.

(2)       Natural sources like chlorine molecules which are being released into the atmosphere delete the ozone layer.

(3)       Volcanic eruptions contribute to about 5% damage to the ozone layer because chemicals like HCI, sulphur–dioxide are released during volcanic eruptions and they also damage the ozone layer.

In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has banned the use of CFC containing compounds.

(1)       This involves to limit the use of ozone depleting chemicals

(2)       Phasing out the ozone depleting chemicals

MANAGEMENT OF GARBAGE WE PRODUCE:  Wastes generated by commercial and domestic activities are often indiscriminately disposed. Unscientific management of such waste leads to serious environmental problems which are acute in cities and towns.

Methods being adopted for disposal of solid waste are a serious health concern. Particularly during rainy season, runoff water and high humid conditions increase the health hazards. The land filled sites which are not well maintained are prone to cause ground water contamination. Open dumping of garbage serves as breeding ground for disease causing vectors such as houseflies, mosquitoes, rats and other pests. Diseases like typhoid, dysentery, yellow fever, dengue fever, cholera etc. spread.

Three major steps involved in garbage management are:

(1)       Collection of garbage

(2)       Transportation of garbage

(3)       Disposal of garbage

Collection of garbage is done from residential areas and the practices differ from city to city. Each city has its own collection centre.  Wastes are collected in smaller bins and are then transported to larger bins.

Disposal of garbage in a well managed lab. Adopting scientific methods is termed as sanitary land fill. This involves identifying a suitable site. Land filling is a slow and time consuming process. In India, most of the land filled sites are uncontrolled dumps. The garbage on such sites is not property maintained.

Improvements in our life style have resulted in greater amount of waste material production as many articles being used in our daily lives are disposable items. Changes in packaging have made majority of our wastes non-biodegradable which continue to degrade the environment and cause health hazards.

METHODS OF DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTES:

(1)       RECYCLING: Articles collected by the rag pickers are re-cycled. For example from waste paper cardboard is made, metal wastes are melted to obtain fresh metal articles. Polythene is recycled, plastic is mixed with cement to make roads.

(2)       COMPOSTING; Garbage mixed with sewage, sludge is converted into compost. Organic wastes are decomposed anaerobically to obtain biogas and manure.

(3)       LAND-FILLING; Solid waste is dumped into low-lying areas compacted and covered with a layer of soil each time to reduce the foul smell and spread of diseases.

(4)       INCINERATION; Organic waste is aerobically burnt at 850 degree Celsius inside an incinerator.

(5)       BURNING; Solid combustible waste is burnt but this causes air pollution.

Class XD&H                                        Class Work-6

9-2-2014                                                Biology

Evolution by stages –

1

Evolution is a continuous and gradual process; complicated organs did not evolve by a single DNA change but were created bit by bit over generations e.g. eye is a complex organ of sight in animals. Flat worms have very simple eyes,even these rudimentary structures in flat worm provide advantage to the animal to ensure its survival. From this basic design more complex eyes later evolved in different organisms like eyes in insects, octopus other invertebrates and all vertebrates in cluding human beings have different structures and also have separate evolutionary origin. The complex structure of eye in these animals has been created in stages over many generations.

2

Some organ developed for one particular function but later became useful for quite a different function e.g. Feathers developed to provide warmth in cold weather to the animal but later became useful for flight

3

Some dissimilar looking structures also evolved from common ancestors. The

        current example of such a process is wild cabbage plant from which different

        vegetables are generated by artificial selection rather than natural selection

a)

Selection for short distance between the leaves has led to formation of cabbage that we eat.

b)

Selection for arrested flower development has led to broccoli

c)

Selection for sterile flowers has made cauliflower

d)

Selection for swollen stem has formed kohlrabi

e)

Selection for large leaves has formed a leafy vegetable kale

f)

Selection for coloured leaves formed red cabbage

Evolution verses progress - Evolution cannot be called progress from lower forms to higher forms. It is basically forming more complex designs while the simpler once also keep growing. Evolution is generation of diversity with the help of environmental selection. Bacteria which were formed first have the capacity to live in diverse conditions and are still flourishing on the other hand human beings which are highly evolved species cannot be called the pinnacle of evolution but yet another species in the evolving life forms.

Human Evolution - Human evolution has been studied with the help of excavation, time dating and fossil study. All human beings belong to single species i.e Homo sapiens. Human species have come from Africa. Some of our ancestors left Africa while others stayed on. These migrants slowly spread across the planet i.e. West Asia, Central Asia, Eurasia, South Asia and East Asia. They traveled to Indonesia, Philippines, Australia and America. They traveled forward and backward sometimes separating and sometimes coming back to mix with each other. They had come into beings as an accident of evolution.

                                                                                                                Seema Misra

Pol. Science

Ch-7 Outcomes of Democracy

Q1. How does democracy produce an accountable, responsible or legitimate government?

A1. A. Since citizens enjoy the legitimate political right to choose their representative through regular elections, they also enjoy the right to exercise control over them.

B. Citizens have a right to participate in decision-making based on norms and procedures.

C. They can also examine the process of decision-making through deliberations and negotiations. This is called transparency. This makes a government responsible to the people.

D. Such a government promotes the formulation and expression of public opinion. It has to regard public opinion in order to find out expectations of the citizens.

E. People can have right to information, open public debates and discussions on legislations.

Q2. Explain why democracy is considered good in principle but not so good in practice?

A2. A. Democracy produces less effective government because some delay is bound to take place in the process of decision-making, which involves long deliberations negotiations and procedures.

B. Elections may not provide a fair chance to everyone.

C. Every decision may not be subjected to public debate.

D. Democratic government does not have a very good record when it comes to sharing information with citizens.

E. Democratic governments are not largely free of corruption.

F. They may not always be attentive or responsive to the needs and demands of majority of the population.

G. In actual practice democracies have not been very successful in reducing economic inequalities.

Q3. Give arguments or oppose the following assertions:

A3.

A. Industrialized countries can afford democracy but the poor need dictatorship to become rich.

1. It is incorrect to think that poor countries need dictatorship to become rich, because economic growth and materialism is not only requirement for the development and happiness of people.

2. People deserve democratic ideals liberty and freedom and a legitimate responsible and accountable government of their choice.

3. It is only in a democracy that people can make demands for reforms freely.

B. Democracy can’t reduce inequality of incomes between different citizens.

1. In actual practice, democracies don’t appear to be very successful in reducing economic inequality because most democratic governments are not seriously keen to address the question of poverty. Usually the rich only control political life and enjoy undue economic benefits.

2. However, a democratic government can reduce economic inequality through economic reforms such as providing equal opportunities to all, ensuring equal distribution of wealth, etc.

3. Besides, it is only in a democratic government that people are free to raise their voice against economic inequality and help to initiate reforms for the common good.

C. Government in poor countries should spend less on poverty reduction, health, education and more on industries and infrastructure.

1. Development of industries and infrastructure will lead to economic development.

2. Expenditure on education and health and steps for the removal of poverty will lead to development of human resource.

3. Therefore, the government must strike a balance and give importance to both aspects to ensure overall progress.

D. In democracy all citizens have one vote, which means that there is absence of any domination and conflict.

1. It is a fact that there is a political equality in as one person gets one vote but domination of weaker sections and conflicts do occur due to social divisions. E.g.- India

2. By evolving mechanisms to negotiate differences. E.g.-Policy of Accommodation in Belgium.

3. By promoting general view i.e. majority rule with due weight to minority view.

4. Majority rule does not mean rule of the majority community in terms of religion, race and linguistic groups etc.

5. It means that different people and groups have a fair chance to form the majority.

Q5. Democracy is a better form of government as compared to dictatorship or any other alternatives. Justify.

A5. A. In non- democratic governments or dictatorship, decision- making and implementation is quick and more efficient than in democratic governments because dictators do not have to bother about long debates and deliberations in assemblies. They need not worry about majorities and public opinion like a democracy.

B. Dictatorships face troubles, as fast decisions may not be acceptable by citizens. In democracy the government will take more time to follow procedures like debating and consulting different people and then arrive at sound decisions. So there is transparency.

C. In non-democratic governments the principle of individual freedom and dignity would not have legal and moral force but in democracies these are assured. So democracy stands superior.

D. Democracies allow for some practices and institutions, Eg.  Free and fair elections, open public debate son major policies and legislations citizen’srights to information about government and its functioning, etc. It is responsible and accountable for its actions because it is a government by force. It does not allow freedom of expression, dissent, press, civil liberties, etc. It may suppress opposition violently.

E. Democracy is a rule by the people as people elects the government of their choice, while in dictatorship there is monopolization of power in the hands of a leader or a political party. Government is not elected.

F. Democracy is bets suited to respect accommodate and resolve social differences while non-democratic governments may ignore and suppress internal social differences.